Preface and acknowledgmentsp. xiList of abbreviationsp. xiiiIntroductionp. 1Definitions and scope of typologyp. 1Cross-linguistic comparisonp. 4The problem of cross-linguistic comparabilityp. 11Non-typological factors and the sampling problemp. 18Data sourcesp. 25Typological classificationp. 27Introductionp. 27The concept of a linguistic type (strategy)p. 27Morphological typologyp. 39Implicational universalsp. 44Restrictions on possible language typesp. 44Unrestricted and implicational universalsp. 46Deeper explanations for word-order universalsp. 53Markedness in typologyp. 64Introductionp. 64Markedness and implicational universalsp. 67Criteria for markednessp. 70Structurep. 72Behaviorp. 77Inflectional behaviorp. 77Distributional behaviorp. 81Frequencyp. 84Neutral valuep. 89Conclusionp. 91Grammatical hierarchiesp. 95Introductionp. 95Hierarchies, implicational universals and markednessp. 96The principal grammatical hierarchiesp. 98Numberp. 98The grammatical relations hierarchy and NP accessibilityp. 101Animacy, definiteness and hierarchy of featuresp. 111Bondedness (the modifier hierarchy)p. 117Phonological hierarchiesp. 120Conclusionp. 122Prototypes and the interaction of typological patternsp. 124Introductionp. 124Clusters and typological evidence for prototypesp. 124Animacy and definitenessp. 127Transitivityp. 130Markedness reversals and complementary prototypesp. 134Some phonological examplesp. 134Case, animacy and verb typep. 136Nouns, verbs and adjectivesp. 139Other markedness reversalsp. 143More complex interactionsp. 147Place of articulationp. 147Personp. 149Typology and syntactic analysisp. 150External motivation and the typology of form-function relationsp. 155Introductionp. 155Markedness and economic motivationp. 156Frequencyp. 156Other external explanations for markedness patternsp. 160Iconicityp. 164"Isomorphism" and polysemyp. 165Iconic motivationp. 171Conceptual distance and constituent structurep. 174Syntactic categories, objects and eventsp. 183Other universals of linguistic structurep. 189Competing motivationsp. 192Typological conspiracies and communicative motivationp. 197Conclusionp. 202Diachronic typologyp. 203Introductionp. 203The dynamicization of synchronic typologyp. 203From states to processesp. 218Directionality of changep. 227Grammaticalizationp. 230Correlated grammaticalization processesp. 230Phonologicalp. 231Morphosyntacticp. 233Functionalp. 236Some issues in grammaticalizationp. 240Conclusionp. 244Linguistic explanation in the dynamic paradigmp. 246Introductionp. 246Description, explanation and generalizationp. 247Internal generalizations: language-internal and cross-linguisticp. 249External generalizations: language and biologyp. 252Diachronic explanations and synchronic grammarp. 256Notesp. 260Referencesp. 278Map of languages citedp. 293Author indexp. 301Language indexp. 304Subject indexp. 307Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.