〈Chapter 01 Phonology〉
01 Articulation of Sounds of English ·· 28
1. Places of articulation 29
2. Manners of articulation 31
3. Vowels and diphthongs ···· 33
4. English Syllables ··· 35
02 Suprasegmentals · 35
1. Pitch ···· 36
2. Stress · 36
3. Length 36
03 Distribution of Speech Sounds [Phonemes vs. Allophones] ···· 37
1. Overlapping distribution and contrast · 37
2. Complementary distribution ·· 38
3. Free Variation ···· 40
4. Morphophonology ·· 41
⑴ negative prefix in- ·· 41
⑵ past tense suffix -ed ··· 42
04 English Consonants 43
1. Stops ·· 43
⑴ Aspiration ··· 43
⑵ Assimilation ···· 44
⑶ Flapping · 44
⑷ Palatalization ··· 44
⑸ /t/-deletion ··· 44
⑹ Glottal Stop Replacement ···· 44
⑺ /d/-deletion ·· 44
2. Fricatives ···· 45
⑴ [?]-epenthesis and voicing assimilation ···· 45
⑵ Palatalization ··· 46
⑶ Elision of fricatives 46
3. Affricates 46
⑴ Gemination/Geminate ·· 46
4. Nasals 47
⑴ Regressive Assimilation ·· 47
⑵ Syllabic Nasals ··· 47
⑶ Velar Nasal /ŋ/ ··· 48
5. Approximants · 49
⑴ Syllabic Liquids ·· 49
⑵ Clear l [l] vs. Dark l [?] ··· 50
05 English Vowels · 50
1. Classification of English Vowels · 50
⑴ Monophthongs and Diphthongs ··· 50
⑵ Tongue Advancement, Tongue Height, Lip-rounding ·· 51
and Tenseness
⑶ Tense vs. Lax Vowels ···· 52
⑷ Vowel Nasalization · 53
⑸ Length 53
2. Full Forms vs. Reduced Forms of Function Words 54
06 Distinctive Features · 57
1. Distinctive Features 1 ··· 57
⑴ Syllabic (syl) ·· 57
⑵ Sonorant (son) 57
⑶ Consonantal (cons) · 58
⑷ Continuant (cont) ···· 58
⑸ Strident (str) ··· 58
⑹ Delayed Release (d.r.) 58
⑺ Nasals (nas) ···· 59
⑻ Lateral (lat) 59
⑼ Anterior (ant) · 59
⑽ Coronal (cor) ·· 60
⑾ Dorsal 60
⑿ [± voiced] ··· 60
⒀ [± labial] 60
⒁ [± sibilant] · 61
⒂ [± tense] 61
2. Distinctive Features 2 ··· 63
⑴ Distinctive Features: Major classes [Sonorant], [Continuant] ··· 63
and [Consonantal]
07 Syllables 65
⑴ Syllable-based generalizations · 65
⑵ Internal structure of syllable ··· 65
1. Sonority ·· 66
2. Syllabification · 69
3. Syllable Weight and Ambisyllabicity ···· 70
4. Phonotactics ··· 72
⑴ Single onsets ·· 73
⑵ Double onsets · 73
⑶ Triple onsets ··· 75
⑷ Codas · 76
⑸ Double codas ·· 76
⑹ Triple codas ···· 76
08 Stress and Intonation ·· 79
1. Word Stress ··· 79
2. Noun and Adjective Stress ·· 80
⑴ disyllabics ··· 80
⑵ trisyllabic and longer nouns ···· 81
3. Verb Stress ···· 83
4. Suffixes & Stress ·· 85
⑴ Stress-bearing (attracting) suffixes ··· 85
⑵ Stress-neutral suffixes · 86
⑶ Stress-shifting (fixing) suffixes ···· 87
5. Stress in Compounds ··· 89
⑴ Noun compounds ···· 89
⑵ Adjective compounds ·· 89
⑶ Verb compounds 89
⑷ Complex compounds ··· 90
⑸ Stress in Compounds vs. Phrases ··· 91
6. Tonic accent (= tonic syllable = major sentence stress) 91
7. Accentual Function of Intonation 93
8. Grammatical Function of Intonation ···· 94
09 English Spelling and Sounds 96
1. Vowel Reduction ··· 97
2. Trisyllabic Laxing ··· 97
3. Deletion ·· 97
10 Other Concepts 98
1. Foot 98
2. Stress Placement ·· 99
⑴ Nouns · 99
⑵ Verbs · 100
11 Phonological Processes · 102
1. Assimilation ···· 102
⑴ Progressive assimilation ·· 102
⑵ Regressive assimilation ··· 103
⑶ Coalescent assimilation ··· 106
⑷ Total assimilation [Gemination] ·· 107
2. Dissimilation ··· 108
⑴ fricative dissimilation ·· 108
⑵ -al suffix 108
3. Deletion ·· 109
⑴ Consonant Cluster Reduction (CCR) ··· 109
⑵ /t/-deletion in /nt/ sequence 109
⑶ /g/-deletion · 110
⑷ /b/-deletion · 111
⑸ Schwa Deletion ·· 111
4. Insertion [Epenthesis] ···· 111
5. Metathesis ·· 112
6. Haplology ··· 112
7. Neutralization · 113
⑴ Vowel Reduction [Schwa Rule] · 113
⑵ Flapping · 115
⑶ Glottalization ·· 117
8. Speech Errors [Slips of the Tongue] · 117
12 Phonological Rules · 118
1. Aspiration ··· 118
2. Glottal Stop Replacement [Glottalization] ··· 121
3. Dentalization ·· 122
4. Labiodentalization ·· 123
5. Devoicing ···· 124
6. Velarization 124
7. Vowel Lengthening ···· 125
8. Vowel Nasalization ···· 126
9. Rule Ordering ···· 128
〈Chapter 02 Morphology〉
01 Basic Concepts 135
1. Free vs. bound morphemes ···· 135
⑴ derivational morphemes vs. inflectional morphemes ···· 135
2. Content Words and Function Words ·· 137
3. Allomorphs · 138
⑴ Plural Morpheme {-S} ···· 138
⑵ Past Tense {-D} 138
02 Derivation ·· 139
1. The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words ··· 139
2. Nominal Suffix -ity ···· 141
⑴ Trisyllabic Shortening [Laxing] ··· 142
3. Adjectival Suffix -able ·· 142
03 Constraints on Derivation ··· 143
1. Accidental Gaps vs. Systematic Gaps ··· 143
2. -en suffix ··· 143
3. -al suffix 144
4. Class 1 vs. Class 2 Suffixes ·· 146
5. -ism, -ize vs. -hood 150
⑴ -ism, -ize ···· 150
⑵ -hood ·· 150
6. un- prefix (semantic constraint) ·· 151
7. Adj + V-ed ···· 152
04 Compounding ··· 153
1. Ambiguity ···· 155
2. Exocentric and Endocentric Compounds ···· 155
3. Stress in Compounds vs. Phrases 158
05 Word-Formation Processes · 159
1. Conversion · 159
2. Clipping ·· 160
3. Blending · 161
4. Back-Formation · 161
5. Acronyms ··· 162
6. Initialism [(Alphabetic) abbreviations] ·· 163
7. Coinage ·· 163
8. Word from Names (Eponyms) 164
〈Chapter 03 Syntax〉
01 Lexicon · 174
1. Subcategorization ·· 174
2. Clausal Complements ··· 175
3. Selectional Restrictions 176
4. Thematic Relations ··· 177
[Thematic Roles, θ-roles, Semantic Roles]
02 Ambiguity ··· 181
1. Syntactic Ambiguity ··· 181
2. Lexical Ambiguity ·· 184
3. Lexico-Syntactic Ambiguity ·· 185
03 Constituency Tests ·· 188
1. Movement ·· 188
2. Sentence-fragments ·· 189
3. (Adverb) Insertion · 189
4. Coordination ··· 190
⑴ Ordinary Coordination 190
⑵ Shared Constituent Coordination (Right Node Raising) ·· 191
5. Substitution 191
⑴ Proform Substitution ··· 191
⑵ One-Substitution · 192
⑶ Do so-Substitution ·· 194
6. VP Ellipsis [Deletion] ···· 194
04 Prepositional Verbs vs. Phrasal Verbs 195
1. Movement ·· 195
2. Coordination ··· 196
3. Shared Constituent Coordination Test ···· 196
4. Sentence Fragment ·· 196
5. (VP-Adverb) Insertion ··· 197
6. Gapping [V-Deletion] ···· 197
7. Clefting ··· 197
8. Word Order ···· 197
9. Stress Pattern ···· 198
05 C-command and Two Syntactic Phenomena ··· 198
1. Tree Structure and Basic Terms ···· 198
⑴ dominance and precedence · 198
⑵ constituent ·· 199
2. C-command ··· 200
⑴ Anaphors (Reflexives and Reciprocals) ··· 200
3. Binding Theory ·· 203
⑴ The Notions Coindex and Antecedent 203
⑵ Binding ··· 204
⑶ Locality Conditions on the Binding of Anaphors ··· 207
⑷ The Distribution of Pronouns ···· 208
⑸ The Distribution of R-expressions ·· 209
4. NPIs ···· 210
06 Complements and Adjuncts ··· 214
1. Complements and Adjuncts in NPs ···· 214
⑴ Word order 215
⑵ Stackability · 215
⑶ One-substitution ·· 216
⑷ Ordinary Coordination 216
⑸ Extraposition [Postposing] ··· 217
⑹ Preposing [Wh-movement] ·· 217
⑺ Co-occurrence Restrictions ·· 217
⑻ Compound NP and Noncompound NP ··· 224
2. Complements and Adjuncts in VPs ···· 226
⑴ Structural Ambiguity ··· 226
⑵ Passivization ··· 227
⑶ Do so-substitution ··· 228
⑷ Word order 229
⑸ Obligatoriness · 229
⑹ Ellipsis ···· 230
⑺ Gapping ·· 231
⑻ Emphatic reflexives 232
3. Complements and Adjuncts in APs ···· 232
⑴ Coordination ··· 233
⑵ Pro-form replacement · 233
⑶ Though-movement ··· 233
⑷ Pro-form replacement · 234
4. Clausal Complements vs. Clausal Adjuncts ·· 234
07 Clauses ·· 236
1. Internal structure of S ·· 236
2. Complementizers that, for, whether, if ··· 237
3. Complementizers whether vs. if ·· 238
4. Raising and Control Constructions · 239
5. Differences between Raising and Control Verbs ·· 242
⑴ Subject Raising and Control ··· 242
⑵ Object Raising and Control ···· 245
6. Infinitival Complementation ··· 246
⑴ Believe Verbs: Subject-to-Object Raising ···· 247
⑵ Want Verbs 249
⑶ Persuade Verbs: Object Control · 250
08 Aspect and Modality ···· 252
1. Aspect 252
2. Modality ·· 253
09 Case Theory · 255
1. Case Filter and Adjacency Requirement ··· 255
2. NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE case ·· 256
3. Adjectives and Nouns ·· 258
〈Chapter 04 Grammar〉
01 Tense and Aspect ···· 270
1. Present Perfect vs. Simple Past 270
⑴ Anteriority: definite or indefinite time ···· 271
⑵ Time Adjuncts and the Present Perfect Aspect ·· 272
⑶ Current Relevance ·· 272
2. The present tense in adverbial clauses 273
⑴ will + R → the present tense ···· 273
⑵ will have pp → have pp ··· 273
3. Stative Progressives · 273
⑴ Giving statements more emotional strength and intensity ··· 274
⑵ Focusing on behavior as a change from the norm 274
⑶ Focusing on evolving change · 275
⑷ Hedging or softening a definitive opinion ·· 275
4. Will vs. Be going to · 275
5. Bare Infinitive vs. Present Participle ·· 277
6. Lexical Aspects of Verbs (1) ·· 278
⑴ States · 278
⑵ Activities 278
⑶ Accomplishments 279
⑷ Achievements · 279
7. Lexical Aspects of Verbs (2) ·· 284
⑴ Aspectual Classes ··· 284
⑵ Diagnostic Tests for Lexical Aspects · 285
02 Passive Voice ··· 288
1. Pseudo-passives ··· 288
2. Get Passives · 290
3. Ergative Verbs [Unaccusative Verbs] · 292
4. Middle Verbs · 295
03 Adjectives ·· 296
1. Stative and Dynamic Adjectives · 296
2. Verbal Participles vs. Adjectival Participles ··· 297
3. Unmarked and Marked Adjectives ·· 298
04 Adverbials · 300
1. Subjuncts ···· 300
⑴ Viewpoint Subjuncts ··· 300
⑵ Courtesy Subjuncts · 300
⑶ Item Subjuncts ···· 300
2. Disjuncts 302
⑴ Style Disjuncts ···· 302
⑵ Content Disjuncts ···· 303
05 Coordination · 305
1. Deletion [Ellipsis] ··· 305
⑴ Verb Phrase Deletion · 305
⑵ Gapping [V-deletion] ·· 305
⑶ Constraints on Deletion ·· 306
2. Combinatory and Segregatory Coordination of NPs 307
3. Indicators of segregatory meaning · 308
06 Negation 309
1. Negative and Positive Clauses ··· 309
⑴ Addition of not even ·· 309
⑵ The connective adjuncts so and neither or nor ·· 310
⑶ Confirmatory tags ··· 310
2. Subclausal negation · 310
3. Clausal negation ··· 312
4. Local Negation ·· 313
5. NPIs ···· 313
6. Transferred Negation ···· 317
7. Scope of Negation ···· 318
07 Subordinate Clauses ··· 319
1. Comparative clauses 319
⑴ NPIs ··· 319
⑵ Ambiguity through ellipsis · 319
08 Verb Complementation ··· 320
1. Monotransitive verbs 320
2. Ditransitive verbs ·· 321
3. Complex-transitive verbs · 321
4. Infinitival Complementation: monotransitive, ditransitive, ·· 322
complex-transitive
5. Infinitival Complements 324
⑴ Type 1 Complements: Persuade verbs ···· 324
⑵ Type 2 Complements: Want verbs · 325
⑶ Type 3 Complements: Believe verbs ·· 326
09 Multiword Verbs ···· 328
1. The Distinction between Prepositional Verbs ···· 328
and Phrasal Verbs
2. Prepositional Verb Passivization · 329
3. Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs ···· 331
⑴ Separable phrasal verbs ·· 331
⑵ Inseparable phrasal verbs ···· 332
⑶ Permanently separated phrasal verbs ··· 332
10 Constructions ···· 333
1. Tough Movement ·· 333
⑴ Object-to-Subject Raising (Tough Movement) 333
⑵ Subject-to-Subject Raising 334
⑶ Subject Control ··· 335
2. Relative Clauses ··· 335
⑴ Punctuation · 336
⑵ Modification of a proper nouns · 336
⑶ Modification of any, every, no, etc. ··· 336
⑷ That as relative pronoun 337
⑸ Stacking · 337
⑹ Sentence modification · 337
3. Existential Sentences ···· 339
⑴ Indefinite NPs: preference for the existential over · 341
the non-existential
⑵ Displaced definite NPs ··· 342
11 Marked Word Order 344
1. Cleft and Pseudo-cleft Sentences ·· 345
⑴ Structure · 345
⑵ Clefting is a presupposition trigger 345
⑶ Ambiguity ··· 345
2. Complement Preposing 347
3. Inversion 349
⑴ Subject-Verb Inversion ···· 349
⑵ Subject-Operator Inversion (Subject-Auxiliary Inversion) 350
〈Chapter 05 Semantics & Pragmatics〉
01 Anomaly & Selectional Restriction ···· 357
1. Semantic Anomaly ···· 357
2. Selectional Restriction ·· 357
02 Referential Semantics 358
1. Reference vs. Referent ···· 358
2. Anaphora vs. Cataphora ·· 358
03 Lexical Relations ·· 359
1. Antonymy ··· 359
⑴ Complementary [Binary] antonyms · 359
⑵ Gradable antonyms · 360
⑶ Reverses · 361
⑷ Converses [Relational opposites] 361
2. Synonymy ·· 362
3. Hyponymy ·· 363
4. Homonymy · 364
5. Polysemy ···· 365
04 Sentential Relations 365
1. Entailment ·· 365
2. Presupposition ··· 368
⑴ “Constancy Under Negation” Test ·· 369
3. Presupposition Triggers ···· 370
⑴ Cleft & Pseudo-cleft construction ··· 371
⑵ Factive predicates vs. Non-factive predicates ·· 372
4. The Characteristic of Presupposition ·· 374
⑴ The Cancelling of Presuppositions [Defeasibility] ··· 374
⑵ Entailment vs. Presupposition · 374
5. Factive Predicates and Non-factive Predicates 376
⑴ Factive Predicates ··· 376
⑵ Nonfactive Predicates · 377
6. Implicative Verbs ··· 379
⑴ Group 1 Implicative Verbs: manage ··· 379
⑵ Group 2 Implicative Verbs: fail · 380
05 Deixis [Deictic Expressions] ·· 381
1. Deictic vs. Non-deictic expressions ···· 382
⑴ Deixis vs. Anaphora ··· 382
⑵ Deixis vs. Generic use ··· 383
2. Gestural versus Symbolic Use of a Deictic Expression ·· 383
3. Deictic Center and Deictic Projection 384
06 Grice’s Cooperative Principle & Conversational Maxims 385
1. Cooperative Principle & Conversational Maxims ··· 385
2. Hedges ··· 386
07 Conversational Implicature 388
1. Generalized vs. Particularized Conversational Implicature ··· 388
2. Conversational Implicature ··· 389
3. Generalized Conversational Implicatures (GCIs) ··· 390
⑴ Scalar Implicature (SI) ···· 391
4. Particularized Conversational Implicatures (PCIs) 393
5. Properties of Conversational Implicatures ···· 394
08 Speech Acts ·· 399
1. Two Facets of Speech Acts ···· 399
⑴ Locutionary Act · 399
⑵ Illocutionary Act 399
2. A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts ··· 399
⑴ Representative 400
⑵ Directive 400
⑶ Question · 400
⑷ Commissive 400
⑸ Expressive ·· 400
⑹ Declaration · 401
3. Felicity Conditions 401
4. Explicit vs. Nonexplicit Illocutionary Acts ··· 403
⑴ Conditions of Performative Sentences 403
⑵ Criteria of Performative Verbs ···· 404
⑶ Explicit and Nonexplicit Performative ··· 405
5. Direct vs. Indirect Illocutionary Acts ··· 407
⑴ Direct Illocutionary Act ·· 407
⑵ Indirect Illocutionary Act ···· 408
